Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells for Sustainable Energy Production

 

Mahesh Jamb¹, Yogesh Suryawanshi¹, McNiel D’Abreo¹, Prerna Goswami²

¹Department of Polymer and Surface Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Nathalal Parekh Marg, Matunga, MUMBAI-400019

²Department of General Engineering, Institute of Chemical Technology, Nathalal Parekh Marg, Matunga, MUMBAI-400019

 

ABSTRACT:

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel cells are the key to sustainable energy production in the near future. The authors combine the specifications of the variety of polymers used for manufacture of high as well as low temperature polymer electrolyte membranes, the various combinations of catalyst layers and gas diffusion layers that are available and its applications in terrestrial transport systems. Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells function depending on the arrangement of the membrane electrode assembly, which directly or indirectly relates it to the type of polymer membrane used in the fuel cell. As the temperature of operation increases, the power density increases which basically happens due to greater allowable driving force difference. The authors attempt to classify these fuel cells for into high temperature and low temperature. The following article is a review of the detailed analysis of each component of the Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell particularly highlighting latest modifications in the materials used for the various components .Multiple elementary reaction pathways are possible at each electrode during the operation of the Polymer fuel cell and many interrelated and complex phenomena occur. The following article is a review of the detailed analysis of each component of the Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell particularly highlighting latest modifications in the materials used for the various components.

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Solid polymer fuel cells are compact in size, lightweight having an application from the car industry to cellular phones. In 1994-95, Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells were tested in local buses and experimental vehicles in Vancouver, British Columbia, thus providing extraordinary results in terms of efficient fuelconsumption, the only major drawback being the cost of operation involved. The fuel that is used in Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells is hydrogen. It is preferred in Polymer fuel cells because of various factors including high efficiency, zero polluting discharge as water is the only product formed and can be released in the form of steam. Thus, Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells powered vehicles have broad scope in terrestrial transportation applications The working of the Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells depends on the arrangement of the membrane electrode assembly. The electrode used in the Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells is an important component of the membrane electrode assembly. Its basic function is to act as an ion transfer component in the working of the fuelcells. Its functions can be summarized as follows:

·        The membrane to catalyst transfer of H+ ions.

·        The flow of current from the gas diffusion layer to the current collector through the catalyst layer, i.e. opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.

 

The basic working module of a fuel cell involves transfer of electrons through the outer circuit, viz. through the load, making sure that there is no transfer of electrons through the membrane between the two half cells, thus avoiding a short circuit. At the same time the membrane should be unaffected by the reducing environment of the high potential cathode and oxidizing environment of the low potential anode and must also avoid a gas crossover between the two half cells The water formed as product during the electrochemical reactionmust be removed, as too much of water will flood the membrane. At the same time care,must be taken not to remove too much of water as less of it will dry it. Thus, maintaining this proper amount of water is called as water management.

 

Fuel: Hydrogen

Anode reaction: H₂ + 2OH à 2H₂O + 2e 

Anode potential: 0.83V

Cathode reaction: 1/2O₂ + H₂O + 2e à OH

Cathode potential: 0.40V

E_cathode– E_{anode =} 0.4- (-0.83) = 1.23V 

 

The most commonly used Polymer Electrolyte Membrane is Nafion which is a sulfonated tetra-fluoro ethylene based fluoro-copolymer, which is explained in detail in the section of Polymer Electrolyte Membranes. The operating temperature is about 70 to 90 degree because of presence of liquid water higher temperature will dry the membrane

 

Another membrane used is Polybenzimidazole which can sustain a temperature of 180-230^oC [1]. As water is present in the form of steam, little or no water management is needed and it becomes much easier. As the temperature of operation increases, the power density increases. This happens due to greater allowable driving force difference. If we consider the thermodynamic aspect of this statement, Greater the temperature difference, greater the internal energy difference, and thus greater the enthalpy. However, the entropy of the system also increases with increase in temperature. The effect of increase in entropy is however lesser as compared to the effect due to increase in enthalpy, which is in turn due to rise in internal energy, thus bringing up the efficiency of power consumption and the overall power density. Another integral component of the Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells is the Gas diffusion assembly. It is the link between the current collector and the catalyst and it facilitates the movements of the reactants and products to and from the catalyst layer respectively, hence the porous structure. The gas diffusion layer also removes excess of water thus preventing flooding of the membrane, and at the same time, it also maintains a balanced amount of water thus preventing drying of the cell and preventing an increase in resistance ,similar to the working of the polymer membrane in this aspect. The water thus presents due the gas diffusion layer is necessary to facilitate ion transfer and increase ionic conductivity. The following review paper discusses each of the above-mentioned parameters in detail, highlighting recent advances in each and its scope in terrestrial transportation systems.

 

1.      Basic Components of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells and their latest advances:

1.1   - Membrane Electrodes Assembly:

In today’s world, the major requirement from any power source is enhanced output due to high power density. The output due to Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell ultimately depends on Membrane electrode assembly. Membrane electrode assembly consists of polymer electrolyte (membrane) stashed or sandwiched between the two electrodes wherein electrical energy is generated from chemical energy. The electrodes are insulated from one another so that the electron charge transfer takes place only through the load and not the membrane. Membrane electrode assembly as the name suggests consists of the polymer electrolyte membrane and the electrodes.

 

1.1.1         Polymer Electrolyte Membrane:

The polymer membrane refers to a thin layer of the electrolyte of optimal thickness which conducts proton from anode to cathode and those can exhibit high ionic conductivity while preventing electron transfer and the crossover of hydrogen fuel from the anode and oxygen reacted from the cathode. [1]

 

A.        Low-temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell:

The authors begin with various types of polymeric membranes that highlight the previously mentioned properties. The search for these types of membranes first began with phenol-based polymers which were later found to have low mechanical strength despite a decent power density of 0.05-0.1 kW/m². This was followed by partially sulfonated polystyrene-sulfonic acid copolymer based membranes which highlight better power density but tend to become brittle when dry due to the absence of proper water management system. After many similar modifications nafion based membranes were developed by DuPont. Nafion is a sulfonatedtetrafluoroethylene based fluoro-copolymer incorporating perfluorovinyl-ether groups and is the first class of synthetic polymers called Ionomer. It consists of terminated sulfonated groups on Teflon backbone.[2]. It is a Perfluorinated polymer containing a small proportion of sulfonic and carboxylic acid functional group.[3]. The proton conduction through Nafion relies on the hopping of protons viathe SO₃H groups in the presence of water and thus the membrane needs to be properly hydrated by a humidifying system to maintain an optimum hydration level [4] It has excellent thermal, mechanical, and ionic stability with a lifetime of more than 30,000 hours. Today various new variants and composites of nafion are available with enhanced properties like better tensile strength, proton conductivity, chemical stability, durability, and longer life. For example Nafion composite with Graphene Oxide and Nafion Platinum and D.C. Lee et al [4] observed that the tensile strength was drastically increased with GO or Pt-G content. [4]. Amongst the various concentrations of Graphene and Pt used the cell performance at the content of 3.0 wt.%Pt-G in composite membrane shows the best enhancement in properties. Pt should have acted as the site to produce water using H₂ and O₂ crossed from anode and cathode, respectively. However, beyond 3.0 wt% of Pt-G, the cell performance was rather decreased. This takes place due to poor water retention ability by hydrophobic graphene and/or electron loss due to the formation of electrical conduction network formed by Pt nanoparticles within the membrane [4]. Below is a graph representing proton conductivity and tensile strength of the two variants.

 

Fig.1 – Plot of Proton conductivity vs concentration for casting Nafion and that doped with Pt-Graphene and Graphene Oxide

 

Fig.2 – Plot of Tensile Strength for GO doped Nafion

 

Fig.3 – Plot of Tensile Strength for Pt-G doped Nafion

 

There is a limit operating temperature for these fuel cells, which corresponds naturally to the boiling temperature of water, i.e., 100° C. at atmospheric pressure. This temperature constitutes a physical limit, beyond which the amount of water is considerably reduced until the membrane is completely dried out. A solution that would accord very well with the laws of thermodynamics would be to increase the operating pressure of the system, to increase the boiling temperature of water accordingly. However, this solution is not satisfactory, because, for high operating pressures, the flux of protons crossing the membrane carries along a correspondingly an increased amount of water molecules, which ends up penalizing the performances of the fuel cell. [5]. Thus, the operation of the fuel cell is limited to a temperature of 100^oC due to the water present when at atmospheric pressure.

 

B.     High-temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane:

Forth operation of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell at higher temperature, the kinetic reactions occurring at the anode and the cathode need to be modified along with enhancement in proton conductivity at those temperatures as water vapour is the only phase of water present at that temperature. We need to reduce the reliance of conductivity on the humidity in the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell. Poly-Benzimidazole based molecules have shown promising proton conductivity on doping with specific agents at temperature even above 100^oC and hence their copolymers can be used as solid fuel cell membranes. They show acceptable conductivity for temperatures up to 150^oC[6] Poly-Benzimidazoledissolves in strong acids and is highly hydrophilic in nature. Thus, the best doping agent for poly-Benzimidazole is phosphoric acid basically due to its thermal and chemical stability. The absorbed acid is immobilized in the poly-Benzimidazole membrane. Enhancement in the thermal and chemical properties takes place on doping with phosphoric acid. Initially, there is a loss of water from the membrane but above a temperature of 130^oC depending on the extent of doping, till 450^oC, no significant water loss takes place which is thus a sign of excellent stability of the membrane even on exposure to high temperature.

 

 

A lifetime of more than 3500 hrs for 120^oC and that of more than 5000hrs at 150^oC was seen at a constant cell voltage of 0.5% V and constant H₂/O₂ operation.[7]

 

Fig.4 - Change in water uptake and doping level as a function of acid concentration [7]

Change in water uptake and doping level as a function of acid concentration [7] Apart from this, the latest technologies include use of sulfonated poly (arylene ether benzimidazole) copolymer dissolving copolymer in dimethylacetamide (DMAc) and casting onto a glass plate for enhanced power density up to 23.7 mW /cm^2. [8] Neat phosphoric acid (H₃PO₄) is the compound with the highest intrinsic proton conductivity, and it is the main constituent of proton conducting membranes for high temperature polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells. The high conductivity of the pure acid is mainly the consequence of its “frustrated” hydrogen bond network (there is a severe imbalance of potential proton donors and acceptors) and the strength of its highly polarizable hydrogen bonds. The underlying proton conduction mechanism (structural diffusion) comprises very rapid intermolecular proton transfer and hydrogen bond formation reactions within the highly viscous environment of pure phosphoric acid [9].The proton conductivity goes on increasing with increase in temperature at a much faster rate than m-poly-benzimidazole doped with Phosphoric acid as is evident from the graph below. [10].

 

Fig 5.Proton conductivities of P1-P4 and m-PBI membranes.[10]

 

Sulfonated polyether-etherketone (SPEEK) has a potential for proton exchange fuel cell applications, its conductivity and thermohydrolytic stability should be improved. This can be done by addition of an aluminosilicate, zeolite beta [11] In order to increase both of the water uptake and conductivity, the proton exchange membranes can also be fabricated by SPEEK doped with varied contents of silica sulfuric acid which is obtained by treating SiO2nanoparticles with more volatile SO₂Cl₂. [12] No doubt, higher degree of sulfonationcan enhances the density of acid sites and facilitate the proton transport. However, weaker interactions among SPEEK matrix than Nafion also result in excessive swelling and poor mechanical strength. [13] The latest trend in Polymer Membranes for fuel cells are Anion exchange membranes (AEM) with tunable properties synthesized via bromination of poly(ether sulfone)s containing tetramethylbiphenol (TMBP) comonomers, followed by bromination, quaternization, and ion exchange Many efforts have been made to prepare anion exchange membranes with varying chemical structures via a variety of synthetic routes.[14]Thus the authors can conclude that ,for both Low temperature ,as well as high temperature Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, the performance directly or indirectly depends on the polymer membrane properties, which are as follows: Long-term chemical and electrochemical stability.

·        High proton conductivity facilitating current transfer through the load which increases with minimum resistance.

·        High durability, Strength, and thermal resistance

·        Cost effectiveness. (As the Membrane electrode assembly accounts for more than 70% of the price Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell)

·        The optimum thickness and water management. [15]

 

Electrodes:

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells have incorporated electrodes which are highly loaded with platinum. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are assembled by membrane electrode assemblies (Membrane electrode assembly). Membrane electrode assembly incorporates electrodes, electrolyte, Gas diffusion layer, and catalyst. PEM is clubbed between two electrodes which have catalyst implanted in them. Electrodes (Cathode and Anode) are electrically insulated which is done by PEM. These electrodes are diffused on the membrane at high temperature by heat pressing it. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells transforms chemical energy into electrical energy. A stream of hydrogen is transported to Anode side which splits into Proton and Electron

 

Anode –Hydrogen Oxidation

Cathode –Oxygen reduction

 

Manufacturing:

Previously, the process used was by brushing a 5% Nafion solution onto Protech gas diffusion electrodes. Evaporation of the solvent from Nafion solution in the electrolyte under ambient conditions followed by vacuum drying for about 1hr. Hot-pressing a pair of these electrodes on both sides of Nafion membrane. [16] But then a new method was developed in 2015. It is described as follows: The electrodes were prepared by spray technique as described elsewhere. In particular, the catalytic ink was obtained by mixing the prepared electrocatalysts, and different amount of dry fusion F was prepared as a reference. For catalyst layer preparation a 20 wt. % of ammonium carbonate (Carlo Erba) was used as a pore-former. A Pt loading of 0.3 mg cm^-2 for both the anode and the cathode side was used. The catalytic inks were sprayed onto the Gas Diffusion Layers. [17] Carbon cloth or carbon filter are commonly used materials for these electrodes

 

1.2   Catalyst Layer:

The catalyst layer is a very thin layer which is coated on both sides of the membrane. This catalyst layer consists of microscale carbon particles which are embedded in the matrix of ionomer. (Membrane electrode assembly).[18] For Example-

 

Membrane- Nafion (Polytetrafluoroethylene)

 

Catalyst- Approx. 100nm ‘C’ particles supporting 5nm ‘Pt’ particles

 

Fig.6-  Pt loading thickness

 

The catalyst coating can be done for various thickness of the membrane. And a little change in the thickness can cause huge deviation in working of the cell. This thickness can be distributed in different categories such as:-

 

Table.1- Catalyst Layer Thickness[19]

Description of Catalyst Loading	Catalyst Layer Thickness (mgPtcm-2)
Very Low	<0.01
Low	0.01-0.1
Moderate	0.1-1
High	1-10
Very High	>10

 

1.2.1         Deposition of the Catalyst layer:

There are various methods for deposition of these catalyst layers on the PEFMC or Membrane electrode assembly like, Catalyst Powder based methods: - It is one of the most widely used methods. Here the catalyst is deposited on the Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells in powdered form and hence it forms a catalytic layer on Membrane electrode assembly. This method includes various sub-methods such as:

Table.2- Method of deposition

Method of deposition	Year	Working
Teflon Bonded Catalyst Layers	1962-1966	Here the platinum particles are mixed with the PTFE particles under high heated electrolyte membrane.[20]
Brush Coating Catalyst-Coated Membrane	1992	Here the catalyst powder is mixed in ethanol solution directly to the electrolyte membrane.[21]
Brush Coating a Decal to Transfer	1992	The catalyst layer is added onto a substrate then it is dried and pressed on the Membrane electrode assembly at a very high temperature.This is then peeled off and whatever remains on the membrane layer is the catalyst layer.[22]
Screen Printing a Catalyst Slurry	1995	Printing the catalyst onto the Nafion membrane in various forms.[23]
Dry powder	1998	A cold roller is used to diffuse the catalyst layer on the membrane.[24]
Doctor Blade	2002	Here the membrane is protonated which helps In eliminating steps in producing Membrane electrode assembly. [25]
Inkjet Printing	2007	The catalyst solution was printed directly on the Nafion membrane. [26]

 

Analogous to Catalyst Powder based method various other methods such as vapor-based methods, electrical processes, ultrasonic spray and nanostructured catalyst layers are also widely used. But a huge problem in using all the above methods is the limited stock of platinum and hence resulting in relatively high cost. If we decrease the concentration of platinum,then the electrode won’t work that efficiently. Solution to the above problem is to adjust the thickness, concentration, and the percentage of our constituent elements. Which in turn results in decreased concentration of platinum without causing any efficiency defect.[27]

 

1.3   Gas Diffusion Layer:

The gas diffusion layer (GDL) is a main component of a fuel cell which is a permeable structure made by incorporating carbon filters into a carbon. It can also be made by urging carbon filters together into a carbon paper (example: Toray). Two types of most commonly used GDLs are carbon paper and carbon cloth. Most of the standard GDLs are produced by hydrophobic treatment (PTFE) and Carbon Micro Porous Layer (CMPL). Hydrophobic treatment in PEM fuel cells results in lower power generation by enabling improved water transport whereas in Carbon Micro Porous Layer aims to minimize contact friction between GDL and catalyst layer. [28] The main role of GDL is to provide conductivity and help gasses to be exposed to the catalyst. The GDL gives support to the catalyst layer, provides good mechanical strength, maintains water balance, and allows easy flow of gasses hydrogen and oxygen. Porous nature of GDL help easy mass transport and hydrophobic material gives GDL protection from getting wet. [29] The GDL helps the reaction by assisting the reactants to reach the active sites. It allows the diffusion of the water vapor along the reactants and hence increases the humidity in the membrane. Meanwhile, the water can flow out from the cathode to cells and hence it blocks the active sites. [30] But as the temperature rises till or above 100^oC, therefore this water level reduces on a huge scale. The GDL can also transfer the electrons in between the catalyst layer and the bipolar plate and hence links the particles electronically. [31]

 

Table.3-Some types of GDLs used in HT-Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are as follows:

 

1.4   Applications of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells:

As we want to improve the efficiency of fossil fuels and eliminate the harmful gas emissions the use of fuel cells in electronic vehicles play a very important role. The success of fuel cells is due to the absence of pollution causing components that is does not have a combustion engine. [35] Also the construction is not complex and is dependable. The major concern here is the conversion, storage and having control of the energy stored. [36] Fuel cells are also finding a place in ships and submarines, Advanced Electric Ship Demonstrator (AESD) can use this technology for better propulsion efficiency and reducing acoustic signatures. [37] The fuel cells here must be able to withstand the humidity levels and the temperatures; also it consumes a lot of space which has to be taken care of. Marine vehicles find Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell a worthy replacement because it can work under 100^o C and is also durable. [38] Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell does have limitations which have to be improved, as it needs a energy storage unit for better harnessing of energy, it has a high ripple factor, the voltage change with current density is not satisfactory. [39] The major research area is to obtain maximum voltage output with no polluting factors Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell mostly used for their property that they are light weight. Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cells used in buses can give a efficiency of approximately 40%. They are generally preferred in buses over small vehicle due to their large volume requirements. The hydrogen required as a fuel for Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell must be of high purity and hence is not a flexible systems.[40] Apart from this, Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells are again expected to lead 2013 unit shipments, accounting for 88% of the total, and regionally Asia is expected to dominate with a 76% share of total units.[41] In case of terrestrial transport, the air required for fuel cell reaction is supplied by the combined effect of a motor driven automotive supercharger and a turbo charger driven by exhaust air stream. The bus frame contains transportation approved natural gas cylinders which contains compressed hydrogen under the bus frame.[42] The total number of Fuel cell Powered vehicles increased worldwise from less than 8 in 1997 to more than 180 in 2007. [43]

 

Fig. 7 Fuel cell vehicles by various automakers and layout of Honda aces.[44]

 

CONCLUSION:

Thus the overall working enhancement in efficiency when using Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell depends on the collective impact of the type of membrane electrode assembly, catalystsetc used. It also depends on the type of operation needed (high temperature/Low temperature), presence of an effective water management system. High power density and dynamic characteristics are the properties of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell due to which many motor companies work on Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cellonly. 5000 hours is the average life time required by a fuel cell to be used for light weight vehicles and over 40000 hours for stationary power generation with maximum of 10% decay. [46].The use of FCV helps reduction in pollution and leads to lesser emission of green-house gases thus leading to a lower carbon footprint when using Polymer Electrolyte membrane fuel cell.

 

REFERENCES:

1.       Yun Wanget al. A review of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells: Technology, applications, and needs on fundamental research. Renewable Energy Resources Lab (RERL) ,88( 4,); 2011: 981–1007.

2.       Heitner-Wirguin. Carla. Recent advances in perfluorinatedionomer membranes: structure, properties and applications. Journal of Membrane Science 1996. 120(1);1996:1-33.

3.       Susan J. Sondheimer et al. STRUCTURE AND CHEMISTRY OF NAFION-H: A FLUORINATED SULFONIC ACID POLYMER. 26(3); 2007:353-413.

4.       D.C. Lee et al. Nafion/graphene oxide composite membranes for low humidifyingpolymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Journal of Membrane Science.452; 2014:20–28.

5.       Xavier Glipa et al. Monomers and polymers carrying imidazole and benzimidazole groupings, and proton exchange membrane containing the same for the production of a fuel cell.US8859160B2 Oct 14, 2014

6.       Benjamin Campagne et al. Chapter 13 Recent Advances on Quasianhydrous fuel cell membranes .Advanced Fluoride-Based Materials for Energy Conversion  edited by Tsuyoshi Nakajima, Henri Groult:2015: pp290

7.       Q. Li, R. Heet al. PBI-Based Polymer Membranes for High Temperature Fuel Cells – Preparation, Characterization and Fuel Cell Demonstration. Fuel cells. 4(3)2004; 147–159.

8.       Hasan Ferdiet al. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell Performance of a SulfonatedPoly (Arylene Ether Benzimidazole) Copolymer Membrane. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering; Article ID 6123213 2016.

9.       Jan-Patrick Melchioret al. Why do proton conducting polybenzimidazole phosphoric acid membranes perform well in high-temperature PEM fuel cells. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics .2017(19); 2016:601-612.

10.     Jyh-Chien Chen et al. Polybenzimidazoles containing bulky substituent’s and ether linkages for high-temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell applications. Journal of Membrane Sciences.513; 2016: 270–279.

11.     Erce Şengülaet al. İncİEroğlu Effects of sulfonated polyether-etherketone (SPEEK) and composite membranes on the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) performance, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 34(10) ;2009: 4645–4656.

12.     Lin Du, Xiaoming Yan, et al. SPEEK proton exchange membranes modified with silica sulfuric acid nanoparticles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 37(16) ; 2012:11853–11861.

13.     HongyingHouet al. Thermalcrosslinked and nanodiamond reinforced SPEEK composite membrane for PEMFC. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy,38( 8) ;2013 :3346–3351.

14.     Jingling Yan Liang Zhuet al. Anion exchange membranes by bromination of tetramethylbiphenol-based poly (sulfone)s; Polymer Chemistr:, 2017.

15.     S. M. JavaidZaidi. Research Trends in Polymer Electrolyte Membranes for POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CEL. Polymer Membranes for Fuel Cells. edited by S. M. JavaidZaidi, Takeshi Matsuura;2009:pp 7-25

16.     E: A. Ticianelliet al. Methods to Advance Technology of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells Mechanical and Electronic Engineering Division. J. Electrochem. Soc. 135(9); 1988 : 2209-2214.

17.     I. Gatto, A. Stassiet al. Optimization of perfluorosulphonicionomer amount in gas diffusion electrodes for PEMFC operation under automotive conditions. ElectrochimicaActa. 165; 2015: 450–45.

18.     Paul Witinski. Catalyst Layer of a PEM Fuel Cell Membrane Catalyst Layer of a PEM Fuel Cell Membrane. Available from: URL:http://www.optics.rochester.edu/workgroups/cml/opt307/spr05/paul/

19.     Austin Stronget al. Depositing Catalyst Layers in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells. Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology. 12 (6); 2015:064001-064001-11.

20.     S. Srinivasan, E.A. Ticianelli, A. Redondo. Advances in Solid Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Technology with Low Platinum Loading Electrodes. J. Power Sources. 22(3); 1988: 359–375.

21.     Mahlon S. Wilson, ShimshonGottesfeld. High Performance Catalyzed Membranes of Ultra-Low PtLoadings for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells. J. Electrochem. Soc. 39(2); 1992: L28-L30.

22.     Mahlon S. Wilson, M. S. Gottesfeld. Thin-Film Catalyst Layers for Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Electrodes. J. Appl. Electrochem. 22(1); 1992: 1–7.

23.     C.S Kim1 et al. A Novel Processto Fabricate Membrane Electrode Assemblies for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy. 23(11); 1998: 1045–1048.

24.     E Gülzow et al. Dry Layer Preparation and Characterization of Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Components. J. Power Sources, 86(1–2); 2000: 352–362.

25.     Erich Gülzow, Till Kaz. New Results of PEFC Electrodes Produced by the DLR Dry Preparation Technique. J. Power Sources. 106; 2002: 122–125.

26.     Silas Towne, et al. Fabrication of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell MEAs Utilizing Inkjet Print Technology. J. Power Sources. 171(2); 2007: 575–584.

27.     Nobuaki Nonoyama et al. Cathode catalyst layer, membrane electrode assembly and polymer electrolyte fuel cell and manufacturing method thereof .US Patent 9,431,661 B2. Aug 30, 2016.

28.     Hiroshi Kato. Gas diffusion layer for solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell .US Patent 6,127,059 A. Oct 3, 2000.

29.     Virendra K. Mathur and Jim Crawford. Fundamentals of Gas Diffusion Layers in PEM Fuel Cells, in:Recent Trends in Fuel Cell Science and Technology, edited by Suddhasatwa Basu. 2007:  pp 116-128.

30.     Viral Mehta, Joyce Smith Cooper. Review and analysis of PEM fuel cell design and manufacturing. Journal of Power Sources.114(1);2003: 32-53.

31.     A. El-kharouf, B.G. Pollet, Chapter 4-Gas diffusion media and their degradation, in: Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Degradation, edited by Matthew M. Mench et al.2012: pp 215.

32.     Chao Pan et al. Integration of high temperature PEM fuel cells with a methanol reformer. Journal of Power Sources.145(2); 2005: 392-398.

33.     Jingwei Hu et al. High temperature PEMFC and one-dimensional numerical analysis. Electrochimica Acta. 52(2); 2006: 394–401.

34.     Qingfeng Li et al. High temperature proton exchange membranes based on polybenzimidazoles for fuel cells. Progress in Polymer Science. 34(5); 2008: 449-477.

35.     Marshall J, Kazerani M. Design of an efficient fuel cell vehicle drivetrain, featuring a novel boost converter. Industrial Electronics Society, 2005.IECON 2005. 31st Annual Conference of IEEE.2005: 1229-1234.

36.     A. Emadi et al. Topological overview of hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicular power system architectures and configurations. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. 54(3); 2005: 763 – 770.

37.     Giuseppe Gianolio et al. Fuel cell based power system for backup applications: Telecom Italia and other field test results. Telecommunications Energy Conference, 2007.INTELEC 2007.29th International.2007:280- 287.

38.     Nai-ChienShiha et al. Development of a small fuel cell underwater vehicle. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy.38(25); 2013:11138–11143.

39.     Vipin Dasa et al. Recent advances and challenges of fuel cell based power system architectures and control – A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews.73; 2016: 10-18.

40.     Jung-Ho Wee. Applications of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 11(8); 2007: 1720–1738.

41.     Dr. Dan Carter. Fuel cell today. The Industry Review 2012.http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/news-archive/2012/september/fuel-cell-today-publishes-the-fuel-cell-industry-review-2012

42.     Keith B. Prater. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells: a review of recent developments. Journal of Power Sources, 51(1-2)1994: 129-144.

43.     Jerram LC. Bus survey. Fuel Cell Today 2008.

44.     Honda. Honda fuel cell power FCX; December 2004

45.     Borup R et al.PEM fuel cell durability.  DOE hydrogen program review.2008:20.

 

 

 

 

Received on 12.04.2017                             Accepted on 10.05.2017        

©A&V Publications all right reserved